Sophist - Eulogikon

Sophist

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The Sophists emerged in the second half of the fifth century BCE in ancient Greece, particularly in Athens and other Greek-speaking communities throughout the Mediterranean world[1][3]. They arose in response to a recognized need in advanced Greek city-states for training in the skills required for active participation in political life[1]. Traditional education, which had consisted of appropriation of aristocratic ideals through poetic tradition and military training, was felt inadequate to impart the skills of political leadership in states where success depended on the ability to persuade voters in courts and popular assemblies[1].

The Sophists represented a fundamental shift in Greek intellectual focus from cosmology to anthropology and political science[1]. Unlike their predecessors among the natural philosophers, the Sophists were more interested in exploring the relations of human beings to each other than to the cosmos, consciously founding their teachings on humanistic assumptions rather than on traditionally recognized divinely sanctioned principles[1].

Central to Sophistic teaching was rhetoric, which they were the first to organize into a systematic art[1]. Protagoras, one of the most famous Sophists, is credited with suggesting that there were two sides to every controversial question and defined the orator's function as the ability to speak with equal persuasiveness to both sides and to fortify a weaker argument to make it more convincing[1]. Gorgias defined rhetoric simply as "the art of persuasion"[1]. The Sophists believed that human discourse plays an important role in shaping our experience of the world, and they emphasized language as a mediator of reality[5].

A distinctive feature of Sophistic thought was their treatment of justice and morality. Some Sophists, most notably Thrasymachus of Chalcedon, defined justice as the "advantage of the stronger party" in any community, departing from the traditional view of justice as a divinely sanctioned principle of distribution of rights and privileges[1]. This perspective reflected their understanding of justice as a reflection of the power structure of any state rather than as an objective moral truth[1]. The Sophists' views often conflicted with traditional beliefs and attracted criticism from philosophers like Socrates, who advocated for objective moral truths[1]. Additionally, some Sophists held relativistic views on cognition and knowledge, and some—such as Protagoras and Diagoras of Melos—held atheistic or agnostic views[2].

- Protagoras — Major Sophist credited with the principle that there are two sides to every controversial question; defined the orator's function[1] - Gorgias — Sophist who defined rhetoric as "the art of persuasion"[1] - Thrasymachus of Chalcedon — Sophist who defined justice as the "advantage of the stronger party"[1] - Isocrates — Sophist who established a school in Athens around 392 BCE to educate students in rhetoric while distinguishing his pedagogical approach from other sophistic teachings[2]

The Sophists were itinerant professional teachers and intellectuals who frequented Athens and other Greek cities in the second half of the fifth century BCE[3]. Although they offered courses in a variety of subjects including history, mathematics, and literature, rhetoric remained their primary focus[1]. Their methods of rhetorical training employed debate and set speeches: debates imitated courtroom situations where speakers presented arguments for both prosecution and defense, while set speeches exemplified presentations of policy before the popular assembly or offered persuasive reinterpretations of conventional myths[1].

The Sophistic movement underwent significant transformation in later periods. From the late first century CE, the Second Sophistic emerged as a philosophical and rhetorical movement that became the chief expression of intellectual life in the Greco-Roman world[2]. Unlike the original Sophistic movement of the fifth century BCE, which was deeply engaged with politics, the Second Sophistic was little concerned with politics but instead responded to the practical problems of Greco-Roman society[2]. The term "Second Sophistic" comes from Philostratus, who traced its beginnings to the orator Aeschines in the fourth century BCE, though its earliest representative was Nicetes of Smyrna in the late first century CE[2]. The Second Sophistic came to dominate higher education and left its mark on many forms of literature[2].

Despite opposition from philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, the Sophists had vast influence on numerous spheres of thought, including the growth of knowledge and ethical-political theory[2]. Their teachings had enormous influence on thought in the fifth century BCE, as they focused on the rational examination of human affairs and the betterment and success of human life[2]. The Sophistic approach contributed to a cultural shift in Athens, fostering skepticism towards established values and authority and promoting eloquence as a valued skill[1]. Their influence played a notable role in shaping the political discourse and social dynamics of their time, especially during periods of upheaval like the later years of the Peloponnesian War[1].

The Sophists' emphasis on language and rhetoric as mediators of reality anticipated later intellectual movements by centuries[5]. Their work on the distinction between nature and convention, relativism about knowledge and truth, and the power of speech established enduring themes in Western philosophy[3]. The Second Sophistic's dominance of higher education in the Greco-Roman world ensured that sophistic methods of rhetoric and literary interpretation remained central to intellectual training for centuries after the original movement[2].